Usage

Guidelines for Writing about People

By writing in a way that engages readers, encouraging them to absorb your content and put it to use, it is possible to communicate social work–related information, while also improving human lives. Eliminating the old “shorthand” for describing people will necessarily add some length to a papersubstituting members of racial and ethnic groups for minorities or people with disabilities for the disabled adds wordsbut it is more accurate and eliminates bias.

• Seek and use the preference of the people about whom you are writing. Ask people you work with how they prefer to be described, and use the terms they give you. If people within a group disagree on preference, report the different terms and try to use the one most often used within the group.

NASW Press, for example, does not object to using alternate terms, such as “black” and “African American,” within an article or chapter as long as the content is clearly written so readers are not confused. Be sensitive to real preferences and do not adopt descriptions that may have been imposed on people, such as “senior citizens.”

• Be as specific as possible. Whenever possible, use specific racial or ethnic identities instead of collecting different groups under a general heading. For example, if you have studied work experiences among Cuban Americans, Mexican Americans, and Puerto Ricans, report on these three groups, rather than lumping them together as “Hispanics.”

• Describe people in positive terms. Describe what people are, rather than what they are not. For example, do not use the terms “nonwhite” or “nonparticipant.”

• Remember that you are writing about people. Help the reader see that you are writing about people, not subjects or objects. Use the terms sample or subject for statistics, and describe participants as respondents, participants, workers, and so forth. Keep in mind that a group of 100 people who share certain characteristics also have many traits that are unique to them as individuals, even if these traits are not included in your report. Imagine you are a member of the group about whom you are writing and see how you would react to the terms you have used to describe them.

• Avoid using terms that label people. When adjectives that describe a person’s condition or status are used as nouns, they become labels that often connote a derogatory intent (even if there is no such actual intent). For example, people who do not earn enough money to provide for their needs are often referred to collectively as the poor. Use “poor people” if you are referring to them in the aggregate. People who have lived a long time become the elderly or the aged. If you cannot use specific ages or age ranges, use terms like “elderly people” or “older people.” Do not refer to people with disabilities as the disabled or the handicapped. Note that the use of the article the in front of a noun is a good warning sign that you may be using a label.

Specific Populations

Age

Use “boy” or “girl” only for children and adolescents, though for high school students, “young man” or “young woman” may be preferable. Do not use terms like “senior citizen,” “oldster,” or “graybeard” for people older than 65. Use specific age ranges whenever possible. Use “aging” and “elderly” as adjectives, not as nouns.

Class

Classism often creeps into our language. Instead of assigning class to people, you should describe their situations. This does not mean you should assume that all people have the same socioeconomic advantages, but that you should describe the advantages or lack of advantages rather than assigning attributes to people.

Classism is often combined with bias toward people in terms of race or ethnicity; it is important to take care with language that might perpetuate discrimination.

Disability

Remember that people, themselves, are not disabilitiesthey have disabilities. In addition, the disabilities may be barriers, like stairs or curbs, that handicap people.

HIV/AIDS

Say “people with AIDS,” not “AIDS victims” or “innocent victims of AIDS.” Avoid language that may imply a moral judgment on behavior or lifestyles. Instead of “high-risk groups,” which suggests demographic traits may be responsible for AIDS exposure, use “high-risk behavior.”

Race and Ethnicity

Ascertain what the population group prefers and use that term. Whenever possible, be specific, and describe individual population groups rather than collecting many different groups under one term.

• Avoid using “minority” and “nonwhite.” Many people described in this way view the terms as pejorative and discriminatory. Assuming white people are the predominant population group is an inaccurate portrayal of most countries in the world, as well as many areas in the United States.

• Many people prefer to use “people of color,” but this is not a precise term. Not all people who might be included in the group under such a heading would describe themselves in this way.

• “Black” and “white” are adjectives that should be used (in lowercase only, unless they begin a sentence) to modify nouns, as in “black Americans,” “white men,” or “black women.”

• “African Americans,” “Asian Americans,” and “Hispanic Americans” are all proper nouns that should be capitalized; hyphens should never be inserted in multiword names, even when the names are modifiers. Some individuals prefer to use “Hispanic” or “Latino” as the descriptive terms for people who have a Spanish background, and some use the two together.

• “Native American” or “American Indian”: There has been considerable discussion over which of these terms is preferable. Many people prefer the former, because it is a more precise description.

• The U.S. government combines “Asian and Pacific Islander,” but most Pacific Islanders prefer that they be separated.

• Like other racial and ethnic groups, many people who are white prefer not to be described by a collective term. If it is possible to be more specificusing “Italian American” or “Eastern European,” for exampledo so.

• Take care with modifiers when describing racial and ethnic groups, ensuring that you are not suggesting or assuming they are in different socioeconomic groups. For example, “We compared the reactions of African American and Hispanic men with those of middle-class white men” suggests that the first two groups are in a different status. Given historical stereotyping, the assumption would likely be that they were in a lower status.

Gender

Recast writing that uses male pronouns to include all people. Use plurals when possible to avoid gender reference. Be sure that terms for groups of men and women are parallel. (In other words, do not use “women doctors” with “male doctors” use “female doctors” instead.) Change terms that give the impression that only people of one sex perform certain duties or work in certain professions. (For example, use “police officer” instead of “policeman.”) In case examples, use both masculine and feminine names for clients, social workers, doctors, patients, and others.

• Use plural forms when possible; or, if writing a how-to article, address the reader directly, using “I,” “you,” and “we.” You can often substitute “we” for “he” and “our” or “the” for “his.”

• Do not use contrived forms like “s/he” or “he/she.” Also, try to avoid using alternating masculine and feminine pronouns within an article. Instead, use “he or she,” interspersing it equally with “she or he” throughout the document.

• Avoid words that suggest judgment, that describe women in patronizing terms (for example, “the little lady”), suggest second-class status (for example, “authoress”), demean a woman’s ability (for example, “lady lawyer”), or are rarely used to describe men (for example, “co-ed”).

• Do not suggest that women are possessions of men or that they cannot carry out a role of perform a job that men do.

• Do not construct feminine versions of words that carry a masculine connotation. “Chair” or “representative” should be used instead of “chairman,” “spokesman,” “chairwoman,” or “spokeswoman.” Never use “chairman” to refer to a woman.

• Do not specify gender unless it is a variable or is essential to the discussion. Be sure to use parallel construction: “men and women,” not “men and females” or “girls and men.” “Men” and “women” are nouns, whereas “female” and “male” should only be used as adjectives.

Sexual Orientation

• “Orientation” is a state of being, whereas “preference” is a choice. You should not use the latter to refer to homosexuality or heterosexuality.

• “Homosexual” should only be used as an adjective. You should use “lesbians,” “gay men,” “bisexual men,” or “bisexual women” to refer to people whose orientation is not exclusively heterosexual.

• Distinguish between sexual orientation and sexual behavior. You should write, “the client reported same-gender sexual fantasies,” instead of, “the client reported homosexual fantasies.” When describing sexual activity, the appropriate terms are: “female–female,” “male–male,” “male–female,” and “same-gender.”

Accurate Historical Reporting

• When quoting any document, you must quote it exactly as the words were written or said. If describing a historical situation, you will likely want to use the words that were used in that context. You should, however, make that context clear. If you find the language too egregious, you may want to add a footnote saying this is not your language but the language of the time in which it was written.

Unbiased Writing

NASW is committed to the fair and equal treatment of all individuals and groups. The material published by the NASW Press should not promote stereotypic or discriminatory attitudes and assumptions about people.

Language that might imply sexual, ethnic, or other kinds of biases, discriminations, or stereotyping may not be used. Language can reinforce either inequality or balanced, accurate, and fair treatment of individuals.

Biased and Unbiased Terms

Following are a few examples of biased and unbiased writing, some of which come from The Nonsexist Word Finder by R. Maggio (1987; Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press) and Guidelines for Equal Treatment of the Sexes in McGraw-Hill Book Company Publications.

Incorrect: An African American student, John James works as a part-time clerk.
Correct: John James works as a part-time clerk.

Incorrect: Not the type to stay at home, Betty Wong has chosen a career in politics.
Correct: Betty Wong has chosen a career in politics.

Usage Suggestions

Refer to the following pages for terms to use and to avoid. Consult Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.) or The Social Work Dictionary (5th ed.) for terms not found in this list. Use only the primary spelling listed in Webster’s.

Terms to Use and to Avoid

The following is a list of commonly misused words and expressions to avoid and, in many cases, the appropriate preferred term for each one.

Acronyms that do not need to be spelled out:

AIDS
BSW
CD-ROM
DSM-IV
DSW
GED
HIV
HMO
IQ
IV
MSW
NASW
PhD
SPSS

In addition, parties and states of members of Congress are abbreviated in parentheses.

Example: Barbara Mikulski (D-MD)

University Names

Variations occur in the way some universities (often within the same university system) refer to themselves. Preferred usage for some of these institutions is as follows:

Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick
University at Albany, State University of New York (SUNY)
State University of New York (SUNY) at Buffalo
University of California, Berkeley
University of California, Los Angeles
University of California, San Diego
University of California, San Francisco
University College, University of Maryland, College Park
University of Maryland at Baltimore
University of Maryland, Baltimore County
University of Maryland, College Park
University of Minnesota, Bloomington
University of Minnesota-Minneapolis
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
University of Texas, Arlington
University of Texas at Austin
University of Wisconsin-Madison
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee

Foreign Languages

Occasionally, a manuscript contains words or text in a foreign language. It is important that this material be as correct as possible.

• Foreign words or phrases are sometimes inserted into English text. If the word or phrase is in Webster’s, it is considered to have become part of the English language and is not italicized. Be sure to check that the spellingincluding diacriticals, phonetic marks used in many non-English languages, like accents (é) or umlauts (ë)is correct.

• If the word is not in Webster’s, italicize it and include a parenthetical translation if it is not clear from the context.

• Occasionally, a sentence or more, or a title in the reference list, is in a foreign language. In text, such material should be in italics; in the reference list, follow the same rules for italicizing as with English.

Commonly Used Terms

Note: Many of these terms are exceptions to general style rules.

Key:
adj = adjective
n = noun
adv = adverb
v = verb

A
acknowledgment
acquired immunodeficiency syndromeuse AIDS, without spelling out
acting out (n)
acute care hospital
ad hoc (roman, not italics)
additionally (use also or in addition
administration (Clinton administration)
adviser
African American (adj, n)
aftercare (adj, n)
after-school (adj)
age (people ages 14 to 40; age 13 and under
aged (use elderly person; older adults)
Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)
Alaska Natives
alpha level
American Indian
Asian American (adj, n)
Axes I through IV (from DSM-IV)
azidothymidine (AZT)

B
Beck’s Depression Index (BDI)
biopsychosocial
birth mother
birth parent
birthweight (n), low-birthweight baby
black person or black American
black power movement
burnout

C
caregiver
caregiving
case finding (n), case-finding (adj), case finders (n)
caseload
casework, caseworker
Catholic Church, the Church
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (name changed in
1993, but the acronym is still CDC. “Centers” is considered singular).
census
Chicano/Chicana
child care (adj, n)
child rearing (n)
child-rearing (adj)
child welfare agency
childbearing (adj, n)
chi square (n)
chi-square (adj)
civil rights movement
coauthor
co-coordinator
codependent
coleader
community at large
control group (not controls)
cost-effective (even after verb)
countertransference
coworker
Cramer’s V
Cronbach’s alpha

D
data (always plural, requires plural verb form)
database (adj, n)
datum (singular form, requires singular verb form)
day-by-day (adj)
day care (adj, n)
decision maker
decision making (n)
decision-making (adj)
depression, Great Depression
diagnosis-related groups (DRGs)
disc (optically stored, like CD-ROM), but disk (magnetically stored, like floppies)
discharge planning (adj, n)
drop out (v)
dropout (adj, n)
DSM-III-R (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third
Edition-Revised; no italics when abbreviated)
DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth
Edition; no italics when abbreviated)
DSM-IV-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition—Text Revised; no italics when abbreviated)

E
eldercare
elementary school-age children
e-mail (lowercase “e” except at the beginning of a sentence)
ensure (to make sure; see also insure)
ex-patient (preferable: former patient)
ex-wife (preferable: former wife)

F
factor analytic (adj)
family functioning (n)
family life education program
family services agency
family welfare work
federal government
fee-charging (adj, n)
field service training
flextime
follow-up (adj, n)
follow up (v)
Food Stamp program
food stamps
for-profit (adj)
freelance
freestanding
frontline
full-time (adj, adv)
fundraiser
fundraising

G
gay liberation movement
GED (general equivalency diploma; sometimes called graduate equivalency diploma)
gender (use instead of sex
grassroots (adj, n)
group-serving agencies
group therapy program
group work

H
halfway house
Hawaiian, not native Hawaiian
Head Start
health care
high school-age (adj)
Hispanic people
home health aide
home health care
homebuilders
homemaker
hot line
human services

I
impact (use only as a noun; use “affect” or “influence” as a verb)
individualized family service plan (IFSP)
individualized education plan (IEP)
in-house
in-kind (adj), in kind (adv)
inner city (n)
inner-city (adj)
inpatient
in-service training
insure (use only in reference to financial guarantees)
IQ (do not spell out)

L
Latino/Latina
layoff (v)
layoff (n)
layperson, laypeople
leisure-time (adj)
lifestyle
long-standing
long-term care referral
low-cost housing
low-income (adj)

M
macro
macro level (adj, n)
macropractitioner
macro system (adj, n)
many-faceted (adj), but multifaceted
Medicaid
Medicare
member-at-large (hyphenate when used as a title)
meta-analysis
methodology (use methods or method
Mexican American (adj, n)
micro
micropractitioner
micro system (adj, n)
middle age (n)
middle-aged (adj)
middle class (n)
middle-class (adj)
middle-income (adj)
Model Cities Program

N
narcotic addiction
National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)
National Institutes of Health (NIH)
Native American
near-crisis situation
nonprofit
non–social worker
non-English-speaking

O
often-overlooked (adj)
OK
old age (n)
old-age (adj), but old age pension
old-old (adj) (gerontological term)
one-to-one relationship
online
on-the-job training
outpatient
outreach (adj, n, v)

P
parent–child interaction
parent-teacher association
part-time (adj, adv)
past (not “last”) when referring to periods of time
payer
payment-in-kind (for the agricultural program only)
payment in kind
peer group (n)
peer-group (adj)
peer review (adj, n)
people with AIDS (PWAs)
percent (following number or figure), but percentage without number
Persian Gulf conflict
person-in-environment (PIE)
personsuse people
P.L. 98-142 (do not use No.; use hyphen, close up P.L.)
policymaker
policy making (n)
policy-making (adj)
posthospitalization
posttest
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
preferred provider organizations (PPOs)
pretest
preventive, not preventative
problem solving (n)
problem-solving (adj)
proved, not proven
psychoanalytic
psychosexual
psychosocial
public school districts
public welfare (adj, n)
public welfare administration

R
relief giving (n)
relief-giving (adj)
residential treatment (adj, n)
role perception
role play (n)
role playing (n)
role-playing (adj, v)
role-set

S
school-age (adj)
schoolchild
schoolteacher
schoolwork
servicesuse plural: human services workers, social services agency
sex-role stereotyping
single female-headed households
single-room occupancy hotels (SROs)
sit-ins
social security
Social Security Act of 1935
social security amendments
social security laws
social services
social worker-client relationship
standard setting (n)
standard-setting (adj)
Supreme Court, the Court

T
teenage
teenagers (not teens)
Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF)
third-party payers
Third World
time-series analysis
time span

U
under way
United States (n), U.S. (adj)
upper middle class (n)
upper-middle-class (adj)
up-to-date
utilizationuse only in the sense of patterns or rates of use of a service

V
VAU.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, formerly Veterans Administration
versus in text, v. for court cases
veterans benefits
vice president
Vietnam War
visiting teacher program

W
War on Drugs
War on Poverty
Web site (n)
well-being (n)
white-collar housing
Wilks’s lambda
withinin is usually appropriate
women’s liberation
women’s liberation movement
women’s movement
workers’ compensation
workfare
workforce
workload
workplace
work setting
work site
workweek
work year
World War I
World War II
World Wide Web
Worldview

Y
youth (singular), youths (plural)

Z
zip code (n)

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